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3D Printed InVitro Models of the Blood-retinal Barrier to Study AMD Mechanisms | ||
| Regenerative Biomedicine | ||
| Volume 2, Issue 1, July 2026, Pages 124-141 PDF (890.6 K) | ||
| Document Type: Review Article | ||
| DOI: 10.22034/jrb.2026.07.V2I1A8 | ||
| Authors | ||
| Ali Reza Mofakhami Pourmehrabadi1; Mohammad Negahi1; Bibi Fatemeh Haghiralsadat2; Fatemeh Kuchakzade* 3, 4 | ||
| 1NanoBiotechnologists Fardanegar Co., Yazd Science and Technology Park, Yazd, Iran. | ||
| 2Stem Cell Biology Research Center, Yazd Reproductive Sciences Institute, Shahid Sadoughi University of Medical Sciences, Yazd, Iran. | ||
| 3Biotechnology Research Center, Yazd Reproductive Sciences Institute, Shahid Sadoughi University of Medical Sciences, Yazd, Iran. | ||
| 4Tissue Engineering and Applied Cell Sciences Department, School of Advanced Medical Technologies, Shahid Sadoughi University of Medical Sciences, Yazd, Iran. | ||
| Abstract | ||
| AMD stands among the most common and severely disabling eye diseases worldwide, affecting millions of individuals each year. The condition involves progressive degeneration of the central retina known as the macula or yellow spot, leading to gradual loss of central vision that can ultimately result in blindness. AMD primarily affects people over 65 years old, with women experiencing slightly higher rates than men. Disease progression depends heavily on damage to the outer blood-retinal barrier, a critical structure composed of RPE, Bruch's membrane, and choroidal blood vessels that regulates nutrient and oxygen exchange while maintaining retinal physiological balance. AMD exists in two main forms: dry and wet. The dry form, which accounts for most cases, involves slow but steady breakdown of photoreceptor cells together with drusen deposits following a gradual yet persistent course. In contrast, wet AMD features growth of abnormal blood vessels and fluid leakage, causing more rapid and extensive damage to retinal cells. Conventional laboratory models including two-dimensional cell cultures and Transwell systems fail to adequately reproduce the retina's complex three-dimensional structure or accurately replicate long-term functional maturation and cell-cell interactions. 3D bioprinting emerges as an innovative technique capable of producing 3D constructs that closely resemble native retinal tissue. These models enable detailed examination of disease mechanisms, evaluation of cellular responses to various drugs, and development of personalized treatment strategies. This review provides comprehensive coverage of blood-retinal barrier physiology, 3D bioprinting techniques, modeling of both dry and wet AMD forms, pharmaceutical applications, and future directions in this field. | ||
| Keywords | ||
| Bruch's membrane; Choroidal neovascularization; Drusen deposits; Geographic atrophy; Induced pluripotent stem cells; Retinal pigment epithelium | ||
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